Anne-Marie Faiola is the author of Milk Soaps, Pure Soapmaking, and Soap Crafting. She is the owner of Bramble Berry, a company that sells soapmaking supplies at brambleberry.com, and offers soapmaking advice and inspiration through her blog and on her YouTube channel, Soap Queen TV. The recipient of several small business awards, Faiola was named a Best Boss in America by Fortune Small Business, and is a member of the Coalition of Handcrafted Entrepreneurs (COHE). She can be found online at anne-mariefaiola.com.

Pure Soapmaking

How to Create Nourishing, Natural Skin Care Soaps

Storey Publishing

Contents

The Soapmaking Process

Knowing how soap is made and the science behind it will help you be alert to pitfalls, troubleshoot problems, develop your own recipes, and keep yourself safe during the process. This book primarily focuses on cold-process soapmaking. The term "cold-process" refers to the fact that you don't need to use an outside heat source, such as a stove, during the mixing stage of making soap, although heat is produced during the process. This is because lye mixed with water undergoes an exothermic reaction that can produce temperatures up to 200°F (93°C).

The Science of Soapmaking

The formula for making soap can be written like this:

Triglycerides (fatty acids) + Sodium hydroxide = Soap + Glycerin

In plain English, oils react with lye to create a solid mass. Oils are made of triglycerides, three fatty acid chains connected with a glycerin molecule. Linoleic acid triglycerides (an essential fatty acid commonly found in soapmaking oils) interact with sodium hydroxide (lye) in a process called saponification. The result of saponification is soap with a small amount of glycerin mixed in.

Sodium hydroxide is typically sold as a powder or flakes. It requires a carrier agent to dissolve it so it can mix with oil. Soapmakers typically dissolve their lye in water, but other liquids may be used.

When lye is added to water, an exothermic (heat-producing) reaction occurs. When substituting other liquids for water, the reaction is often hotter, causing other reactions. For example, lye causes the proteins and sugar in milk to scald, turn yellow, smell badly, and congeal into a thick soup, all of which is normal. Each recipe in this book discusses what to watch out for when soaping with alternative liquids and how to control or minimize problems.

Different oils require different amounts of lye to turn them into soap. The amount of lye needed to turn a specific amount of oil into soap is called the saponification (SAP) value (see What Is the SAP Value?). Oils are composed of strings of short- and long-chain fatty acids. Palm oil, for example, contains five main fatty acids while coconut oil has eleven, and olive oil has six.

Those fatty acids have different properties that dictate the amount of lye necessary to turn the oil into soap. For example, palm oil is made of over 40 percent palmitic acid, a saturated fatty acid that makes palm oil solid at room temperature. Olive oil, however, contains up to 83 percent oleic acid, which is liquid at room temperature. Palm oil acts radically different than olive oil when mixed with sodium hydroxide, and the two oils require different amounts of lye to turn them into soap.

Fatty acids are also what give the final soap its different characteristics. For example, coconut oil promotes lather, while avocado oil is typically used to add nourishing characteristics to soap. Meadowfoam oil and mango butter both contribute conditioning and moisturizing properties, but the fatty acids in meadowfoam oil produce creamy bubbles while mango butter does not provide much lather.

The recipes in this book have all been carefully formulated to ensure a properly balanced bar of soap. If you are just starting out, it is best to follow all of the recipes exactly to get a feel for the process and what a good bar feels like. See chapter 7 to learn more about formulating your own recipes.

Balancing Oil and Lye

Soap works by laying down a slick of soapy lather that attaches to dirt. Both the lather and the dirt are rinsed away by water, but this process can also strip the skin of its natural oils and moisture. Extra oil in the soap can help to replenish the skin's natural oil barrier, making it feel moisturized.

This is why many soapers choose to leave a percentage of extra oil in their soap, a practice called "superfatting" or "lye discounting." A recipe that calls for the exact amount of lye necessary to convert all the oil into soap is said to have a zero percent lye discount or to be zero percent superfat. A bar that is zero percent superfat — meaning it has no excess oil after saponification — will be a stable, hard bar of soap, but it is likely to be somewhat less gentle to skin.

The downside of incorporating extra oils is that they can weigh down lather, decrease shelf life, and make a softer bar of soap that does not last as long in the shower. Superfatting is a personal preference. Most soapers choose to keep their superfat, or lye discount, to 10 percent or under. This book uses superfats between two and seven percent.

How Much Water to Use?

In addition to calculating the amount of each oil used in a given recipe, you also need to know how much water (or other liquid, depending on the recipe) is needed. The water acts as a carrier for the lye by forming ions that react with the oils. You need to use enough water to fully dissolve the lye, but not so much that it creates a sloppy bar of soap. Most calculators call for a range of water amounts, typically between 33 and 39 percent of the total amount of oil.

Using the maximum amount of water generally gives the best results. Using less water than the recipe calls for is called "water discounting." Soapers water-discount when they want to hasten the drying and curing time but still produce a hard bar of soap. If you use less water than the recipe calls for, your soap may reach trace more quickly than if the full water amount is used. If your soap becomes too thick too quickly, you will not have time to create elaborate designs. Water discounting is an advanced technique (see What Is a Water Discount?), best left until you have extensive experience soaping.

The Curing Process

Kevin Dunn, professor of chemistry and author of Caveman Chemistry, has determined that the bulk of the saponification reaction is finished in the first 24 hours. This does not mean, however, that you should use your soap within the first day.

Once soap has been unmolded and/or cut into bars, it must be set aside to cure and dry for four to six weeks in a well-ventilated area, turning bars every few days so that they dry evenly. This means if you make soap on January 1, your soap will not be ready to use, give away, or sell until January 29 at the earliest. During this period, the soap becomes more mild as the last traces of lye saponify and the bars lose weight as moisture evaporates, increasing hardness. This is important because a harder bar lasts longer in the shower.

The full cure time also helps to ensure that the lather of the bar is stable and long-lasting. Freshly made soap produces small, weak bubbles. Finally, if you are selling your soap, curing bars for the full time period is important to ensure that the final weight of the bar is correct and matches the label.

Soaping Safety Guidelines

It takes a powerful alkaline agent to turn oils into soap. For bar soap, this agent is sodium hydroxide, a common chemical that is found in any number of other applications, from cleaning drains to making face creams (even making pretzels, which are boiled in lye-water before baking!). Lye has an extremely high pH of 14.0. By comparison, lemon juice has a pH of around 2.0 and human skin has a pH of 5.0 to 6.0.

LYE IS CAUSTIC! It will burn skin, stain clothing, take the finish off wood, and damage many other surfaces. It can cause blindness and may be fatal if swallowed. Serious safety precautions must be taken when working with it, especially when it is dissolved in water.

A splash of lye-water will eventually eat through clothing and into your skin, leaving red marks and open sores. If you do spill lye-water on yourself, immediately remove contaminated clothing, including shoes, and wash your skin under cold running water for at least 15 minutes. (See Emergency Response below.)

Many soapers keep vinegar on hand, believing it neutralizes lye burns. There is some controversy in the soapmaking community about washing lye burns with vinegar rather than water. Adding vinegar (an acid) to lye (a base) creates a chemical reaction that releases more heat. Additionally, the act of putting vinegar on a lye burn hurts. Just use water.

Although vinegar should not be used to treat lye burns on skin, it can be used as precaution during the cleanup process. A quick wipe of your workspace with a vinegar-soaked rag can neutralize any lye dust that may have gotten on the surface.

Working with Lye

When working with sodium hydroxide, it is very important to follow these safety guidelines.

1.Always use safety goggles that completely cover your eyes. Glasses do not offer adequate protection — goggles are a necessity. Some soapers wear a full-face shield.

2. Wear chemical-resistant gloves (see more on protective wear). Best practice is to wear long sleeves, pants, and closed-toe shoes.

3. Mix the lye-water solution in a room with adequate ventilation. Add the lye slowly and carefully and stir gently. Do not breathe in the fumes. Some soapers use an air-filter mask.

4. Cover your workstation with cardboard or several layers of newspaper. Whenever possible, mix lye-water over a sink to contain spills and prevent accidents.

5. Mix your lye solution in a heat-safe container that is quite a bit larger than the amount of liquid you are mixing. When lye is mixed with water, it produces a heat reaction that goes up to 200°F (93°C). Other liquids (especially those containing sugars) can create an even warmer reaction.

6. Always add the lye to the water, not the other way around. Adding water to lye can create a caustic volcano that could foam out of the container.

Other Safety Precautions

Never soap with small children or pets in the room. Make sure they are adequately supervised so that you can give your full attention to your soapmaking process. It takes only seconds for a painful or debilitating accident to occur.

Avoid letting your soapmaking ingredients come into contact with aluminum, including containers, mixing utensils, and molds. It will ruin your soap and, worse, produce highly flammable hydrogen gas as a by-product.

Soap utensils are for soap. Food utensils are for food. Do not interchange soapmaking tools and food tools.

Emergency Response

SKIN. If you splash lye, lye-water, or fresh soap batter on any part of your body, immediately rinse the area with copious amounts of cold water. Then rinse some more, using fully cured soap to wash away the chemical residue. If you spill a large quantity on yourself, strip off your clothing at once and jump into a cold shower for 20 minutes, again using soap to clean off the lye. If your skin is red or painful after that, go to the emergency room.

EYES. Immediately flush with cold, running water for at least 20 minutes. Seek medical attention promptly.

THROAT. If you somehow swallow lye in any form, rinse your mouth thoroughly and then drink one or two large glasses of water. Do not induce vomiting. Seek immediate medical attention or call the American Association of Poison Control Centers at 800-222-1222.

Choosing Equipment & Molds

It takes only a few basic tools to make a batch of soap. As you progress in your soapmaking journey, you can acquire additional tools that will make the process easier and allow you to create more elaborate designs. To start out, however, you need just a few things that can be found in a kitchen store or a thrift store.

When looking for equipment, think about long-term durability and safety. For example, wooden tools are not a good choice because they degrade over time and eventually can splinter in the soap. Choose heat-resistant glass bowls that are tempered to withstand repeated heating and exposure to lye.

Starting Out

The basic equipment for soapmaking can be found in any kitchen, but it's not a good idea to use your cookware to make soap. Buy a separate set of utensils and store them where they cannot be mistakenly used for food preparation.

You'll also need a large supply of newspaper or flattened cardboard to protect your entire work surface. If you don't have a dedicated soaping space, you can put a layer of heavy plastic under the papers to further protect your countertops.

PROTECTIVE WEAR. Lye-water and raw soap can burn and irritate skin and damage eyes. Protecting your eyes from start to finish is essential. Use goggles with a protective lip that fully covers your eyes (including your glasses, if you wear them) or use a full-face shield and air filter. This equipment can be found at a local hardware store. Wear gloves: the best type are disposable medical gloves (latex or nitrile), although you can use rubber dishwashing gloves. The tighter the fit, the less chance of clumsy mistakes.

A SCALE. Most ingredients in soapmaking, including liquids and oils, are measured by weight, not volume. Weight is more precise than volume, and in the science of soapmaking, precision matters. An inexpensive digital scale is easy and accurate, but a manual model works fine also. Choose a scale that can weigh heavy enough amounts for soaping. For example, don't get a scale that can't weigh amounts over 16 ounces if you plan on making large batches of soap.

MEASURING CUPS AND SPOONS. In addition to using them to measure ingredients, the cups are handy for coloring small portions of soap batter and for use as a design tool. A standard set of measuring cups works fine, but ones with pouring spouts are preferable. The longer the spout, the easier it is to do more elaborate designs. Measuring spoons are useful for ensuring precision with dry additives, such as exfoliants, colorants, and clays.

Choose ones made of heat- and chemical-resistant material, never aluminum. Typically, fragrance and essential oils are weighed in glass containers. Some plastic containers can erode and degrade if used for pure essential or fragrance oils.

LYE-WATER CONTAINER. A heat-resistant measuring bowl (glass or plastic) with a handle and spout is critical for mixing water and lye and adding it to the oils. It's useful to have both a 2-quart and a 4-quart version; buy the larger one if you want to start with just one. It's important to allow plenty of headspace when mixing lye-water.

THERMOMETER. Monitoring the temperature of your ingredients is important. You want to be sure that delicate ingredients do not get scorched, to prevent soap volcanoes, and to ensure even emulsification and saponification. You can use a candy thermometer or a digital thermometer.

HEAT-RESISTANT BOWLS. You can use plastic, stainless steel, or glass bowls for mixing lye-water and soap batter, as long as they are heat- and chemical-resistant. Choose two or three bowls large enough to fit different-size soap batches with plenty of extra room — filling a bowl to the top, especially when mixing lye-water, invites spills that can burn you or ruin your countertops. Ideally, you should have 1-, 2-, and 3-quart capacity bowls on hand. Additionally, easy-pour containers with handles and long pouring spouts make it much easier to transfer the batter to the mold and perform delicate swirling techniques.

SPOONS, WHISKS, AND SPATULAS. You need at least one long-handled spoon for mixing batter and for creating designs. Whisks in a couple of different sizes are essential for mixing in fragrance oils and additives. They are also useful for maintaining the appropriate trace as you work. Spatulas are used to scrape the last of the soap batter out of mixing bowls and create intricate soap designs. Stainless steel is the ideal material for mixing utensils; silicone or heavy-duty rubber is acceptable. Over time, wood will degrade and splinter off into your soap.

STICK BLENDER. Also known as an immersion blender, this is a soapmaker's best friend. It reduces the tracing process from a 30- to 90-minute process to just a few minutes or even seconds, depending on your recipe. When choosing a stick blender, look for a model that will not whip much air into the soap. (I recommend those made by Cuisinart.) Buy one with a stainless steel shaft; a plastic shaft will eventually weaken and break. If the shaft detaches from the electrical unit, it is easier to clean.

KNIFE FOR CUTTING BARS. You can purchase a specially designed wire soap-cutter, but a sharp, non-serrated knife works just fine. A serrated knife will leave drag marks along the edges of your bars.

SMALL GLASS BOWLS. You can never have too many small glass bowls to hold measured amounts of additives, fragrance oils, essential oils, and colorants. Many ingredients, such as essential oils, are corrosive enough to damage plastic.

Other Useful Equipment

The following items aren't critical for making soap, but having them makes the process easier and more convenient. Some of these tools are necessary for making particular patterns or delicate designs.

ISOPROPYL RUBBING ALCOHOL. Spraying 99% pure rubbing alcohol on your soap before it cures in the molds is optional, but it helps to prevent a layer of soda ash from forming on the surface of the bars.